Ten years of graduates: A cross-sectional study of the practice location of doctors trained at a socially accountable medical school.

INTRODUCTION: The study predicted practice location of doctors trained at a socially accountable medical school with education programs in over 90 communities. METHODS: A cross-sectional study examined practice location 10 years after the first class graduated from the Northern Ontario School of Medicine (NOSM), Canada. Exact tests and logistic regression models were used to assess practice location in northern Ontario; northern Canada; or other region; and rural (population <10,000) or urban community. RESULTS: There were 435 doctors with 334 (77%) practising as family doctors (FPs), 62 (14%) as generalist specialists and 39 (9%) as other medical or surgical specialists. Approximately 92% (128/139) of FPs who completed both UG and PG at NOSM practised in northern Ontario in 2019, compared with 63% (43/68) who completed only their PG at NOSM, and 24% (30/127) who completed only their UG at NOSM. Overall, 37% (23/62) of generalist specialists and 23% (9/39) of other specialists practised in northern Ontario. Approximately 28% (93/334) of FPs practised in rural Canada compared with 4% (4/101) of all other specialists. FP northern Ontario practice was predicted by completing UG and PG at NOSM (adjusted odds ratio = 46, 95% confidence interval = 20-103) or completing only PG at NOSM (15, 6.0-38) relative to completing only UG at NOSM, and having a northern Ontario hometown (5.3, 2.3-12). Rural Canada practice was predicted by rural hometown (2.3, 1.3-3.8), completing only a NOSM PG (2.0, 1.0-3.9), and age (1.4, 1.1-1.8). CONCLUSION: This study uniquely demonstrated the interaction of two mechanisms by which medical schools can increase the proportion of doctors' practices located in economically deprived regions: first, admit medical students who grow up in the region; and second, provide immersive UG and PG medical education in the region. Both mechanisms have enabled the majority of NOSM-trained doctors to practise in the underserved region of northern Ontario.

Distributed education enables distributed economic impact: the economic contribution of the Northern Ontario School of Medicine to communities in Canada.

BACKGROUND: Medical schools with distributed or regional programs encourage people to live, work, and learn in communities that may be economically challenged. Local spending by the program, staff, teachers, and students has a local economic impact. Although the economic impact of DME has been estimated for nations and sub-national regions, the community-specific impact is often unknown. Communities that contribute to the success of DME have an interest in knowing the local economic impact of this participation. To provide this information, we estimated the economic impact of the Northern Ontario School of Medicine (NOSM) on selected communities in the historically medically underserviced and economically disadvantaged Northern Ontario region. METHODS: Economic impact was estimated by a cash-flow local economic model. Detailed data on program and learner spending were obtained for Northern Ontario communities. We included spending on NOSM's distributed education and research programs, medical residents' salary program, the clinical teachers' reimbursement program, and spending by learners. Economic impact was estimated from total spending in the community adjusted by an economic multiplier based on community population size, industry diversity, and propensity to spend locally. Community employment impact was also estimated. RESULTS: In 2019, direct program and learner spending in Northern Ontario totalled $64.6 M (million) Canadian Dollars. Approximately 76% ($49.1 M) was spent in the two largest population centres of 122,000 and 165,000 people, with 1-5% ($0.7 M - $3.1 M) spent in communities of 5000-78,000 people. In 2019, total economic impact in Northern Ontario was estimated to be $107 M, with an impact of $38 M and $36 M in the two largest population centres. The remaining $34 M (32%) of the economic impact occurred in smaller communities or within the region. Expressed alternatively as employment impact, the 404 full time equivalent (FTE) positions supported an additional 298 FTE positions in Northern Ontario. NOSM-trained physicians practising in the region added an economic impact of $88 M. CONCLUSIONS: By establishing programs and bringing people to Northern Ontario communities, NOSM added local spending and knowledge-based economic activity to a predominantly resource-based economy. In an economically deprived region, distributed medical education enabled distributed economic impact.

How underserviced rural communities approach physician recruitment: changes following the opening of a socially accountable medical school in northern Ontario.

INTRODUCTION: The Northern Ontario School of Medicine (NOSM) opened in 2005 with a social accountability mandate to address a long history of physician shortages in northern Ontario. The objective of this qualitative study was to understand the school's effect on recruitment of family physicians into medically underserviced rural communities of northern Ontario. METHODS: We conducted a multiple case study of 8 small rural communities in northern Ontario that were considered medically underserviced by the provincial ministry of health and had successfully recruited NOSM-trained physicians. We interviewed 10 people responsible for physician recruitment in these communities. Interview transcripts were analyzed by means of an inductive and iterative thematic method. RESULTS: All 8 communities were NOSM medical education sites with populations of 1600-16 000. Positive changes, linked to collaboration with NOSM, included achieving a full complement of physicians in 5 communities with previous chronic shortages of 30%-50% of the physician supply, substantial reduction in recruitment expenditures, decreased reliance on locums and a shift from crisis management to long-term planning in recruitment activities. The magnitude of positive changes varied across communities, with individual leadership and communities' active engagement being key factors in successful physician recruitment. CONCLUSION: Locating medical education sites in underserviced rural communities in northern Ontario and engaging these communities in training rural physicians showed great potential to improve the ability of small rural communities to recruit family physicians and alleviate physician shortages in the region.

INTRODUCTION: L'École de médecine du Nord de l'Ontario (EMNO), qui a ouvert ses portes en 2005, a pour mandat social de combler la pénurie d'effectifs médicaux qui sévit depuis longtemps dans le Nord de l'Ontario. L'objectif de cette étude qualitative était d'étudier l'effet qu'a eu l'école sur le recrutement des médecins de famille dans des communautés rurales mal desservies dans cette région de la province. METHODS: Nous avons procédé à une étude de cas multiples auprès de 8 petites communautés rurales du Nord de l'Ontario considérées comme mal desservies par le ministère de la Santé provincial sur le plan des effectifs médicaux et ayant réussi à recruter des médecins formés à l'EMNO. Nous avons interrogé 10 personnes responsables du recrutement des médecins dans ces communautés. La transcription des entrevues a été analysée au moyen d'une méthode thématique inductive et itérative. RESULTS: La formation médicale de l'EMNO était offerte dans les 8 communautés, dont la population variait de 1600 à 16 000 habitants. Parmi les améliorations reliées à la collaboration avec l'EMNO, mentionnons : le recrutement de médecins dans 5 communautés où sévissaient auparavant des pénuries chroniques de l'ordre de 30 % à 50 %, une réduction substantielle des dépenses liées au recrutement, une diminution interdu recours à des remplaçants et la transition des activités de recrutement pour passer d'une situation de gestion de crise à une situation de planification à long terme. L'ampleur des améliorations a varié selon les communautés; le leadership individuel et la participation active des communautés ont été des facteurs clés de la réussite du recrutement des médecins. CONCLUSION: La prestation d'une formation dans de petites communautés rurales mal desservies du Nord de l'Ontario et la mobilisation des communautés visées à l'endroit de la formation des médecins en milieu rural ont révélé leur fort potentiel d'amélioration de la capacité de recruter des médecins de famille et de corriger les pénuries d'effectifs médicaux dans la région.

Outcomes of the Northern Ontario School of Medicine's distributed medical education programmes: protocol for a longitudinal comparative multicohort study.

INTRODUCTION: The Northern Ontario School of Medicine (NOSM) has a social accountability mandate to serve the healthcare needs of the people of Northern Ontario, Canada. A multiyear, multimethod tracking study of medical students and postgraduate residents is being conducted by the Centre for Rural and Northern Health Research (CRaNHR) in conjunction with NOSM starting in 2005 when NOSM first enrolled students. The objective is to understand how NOSM's selection criteria and medical education programmes set in rural and northern communities affect early career decision-making by physicians with respect to their choice of medical discipline, practice location, medical services and procedures, inclusion of medically underserved patient populations and practice structure. METHODS AND ANALYSIS: This prospective comparative longitudinal study follows multiple cohorts from entry into medical education programmes at the undergraduate (UG) level (56-64 students per year at NOSM) or postgraduate (PG) level (40-60 residents per year at NOSM, including UGs from other medical schools and 30-40 NOSM UGs who go to other schools for their residency training) and continues at least 5 years into independent practice. The study compares learners who experience NOSM UG and NOSM PG education with those who experience NOSM UG education alone or NOSM PG education alone. Within these groups, the study also compares learners in family medicine with those in other specialties. Data will be analysed using descriptive statistics, χ(2) tests, logistic regression, and hierarchical log-linear models. ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION: Ethical approval was granted by the Research Ethics Boards of Laurentian University (REB #2010-08-03 and #2012-01-09) and Lakehead University (REB #031 11-12 Romeo File #1462056). Results will be published in peer-reviewed scientific journals, presented at one or more scientific conferences, and shared with policymakers and decision-makers and the public through 4-page research summaries and social media such as Twitter (@CRaNHR, @NOSM) or Facebook.

The economic contribution of the Northern Ontario School of Medicine to communities participating in distributed medical education.

INTRODUCTION: The economic contribution of medical schools to major urban centres can be substantial, but there is little information on the contribution to the economy of participating communities made by schools that provide education and training away from major cities and academic health science centres. We sought to assess the economic contribution of the Northern Ontario School of Medicine (NOSM) to northern Ontario communities participating in NOSM's distributed medical education programs. METHODS: We developed a local economic model and used actual expenditures from 2007/08 to assess the economic contribution of NOSM to communities in northern Ontario. We also estimated the economic contribution of medical students or residents participating in different programs in communities away from the university campuses. To explore broader economic effects, we conducted semistructured interviews with leaders in education, health care and politics in northern Ontario. RESULTS: The total economic contribution to northern Ontario was $67.1 million based on $36.3 million in spending by NOSM and $1.0 million spent by students. Economic contributions were greatest in the university campus cities of Thunder Bay ($26.7 million) and Sudbury ($30.4 million), and $0.8-$1.2 million accrued to the next 3 largest population centres. Communities might realize an economic contribution of $7300-$103 900 per pair of medical learners per placement. Several of the 59 interviewees remarked that the dollar amount could be small to moderate but had broader economic implications. CONCLUSION: Distributed medical education at the NOSM resulted in a substantial economic contribution to participating communities.

INTRODUCTION: Les écoles de médecine peuvent apporter des avantages économiques importants aux grands centres urbains. On n'en sait guère toutefois sur l'apport économique, pour les communautés participantes, des écoles qui offrent des cours et de la formation hors des grandes villes et loin des centres universitaires des sciences de la santé. Nous avons voulu évaluer la contribution économique de l'École de médecine du Nord de l'Ontario (EMNO) aux communautés qui participent à ses programmes d'apprentissage distribué. MÉTHODES: Nous avons créé un modèle économique local et utilisé les dépenses réelles de 2007/08 pour évaluer l'apport économique de l'EMNO aux communautés du Nord de l'Ontario. Nous avons aussi estimé l'apport économique des étudiants en médecine ou des médecins résidents qui participent aux divers programmes offerts dans les communautés éloignées des campus de l'université. Enfin, pour explorer les répercussions économiques plus vastes, nous avons effectué des entrevues semi-structurées auprès de chefs de file des milieux de l'éducation, des soins de santé et de la politique dans le Nord de l'Ontario. RÉSULTATS: L'apport économique total de l'EMNO s'est chiffré à 67,1 millions de dollars (dépenses de l'École, 36,3 millions; dépenses des étudiants, 1,0 million). L'apport économique a été le plus important pour les villes qui hébergent un campus de l'université, soit Thunder Bay (26,7 millions) et Sudbury (30,4 millions), les 3 centres suivants en importance bénéficiant d'un apport de 0,8 à 1,2 million de dollars. Les communautés peuvent réaliser des bénéfices économiques de 7 300 $ à 103 900 $ par paire d'apprenants en médecine par placement. Plusieurs des 59 personnes interviewées ont souligné que le montant des contributions, en argent, peut être assez petit ou moyen, mais que les répercussions économiques se font sentir à plus grande échelle. CONCLUSION: L'éducation médicale distribuée à l'EMNO a apporté une contribution économique substantielle aux communautés participantes.

The SOMERS Index: a simple instrument designed to predict the likelihood of rural career choice.

OBJECTIVE: The World Health Organization has drawn up a set of strategies to encourage health workers to live and work in remote and rural areas. A comprehensive instrument designed to evaluate the effectiveness of such programs has not yet been tested. Factors such as Stated rural intention, Optional rural training, Medical sub-specialization, Ease (or self-efficacy) and Rural Status have been used individually or in limited combinations. This paper examines the development, validity, structure and reliability of the easily-administered SOMERS Index. DESIGN: Limited literature review and cross-sectional cohort study. SETTING: Australian medical school. PARTICIPANTS: A total of 345 Australian undergraduate-entry medical students in years 1 to 4 of the 5-year course. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Validity of the factors as predictors of rural career choice was sought in the international literature. Structure of the index was investigated through Principal Components Analysis and regression modelling. Cronbach's alpha was the test for reliability. RESULTS: The international literature strongly supported the validity of the components of the index. Factor analysis revealed a single, strong factor (eigenvalue: 2.78) explaining 56% of the variance. Multiple regression modelling revealed that each of the other variables contributed independently and strongly to Stated Rural Intent (semi-partial correlation coefficients range: 0.20-0.25). Cronbach's alpha was high at 0.78. CONCLUSIONS: This paper presents the reliability and validity of an index, which seeks to estimate the likelihood of rural career choice. The index might be useful in student selection, the allocation of rural undergraduate and postgraduate resources and the evaluation of programs designed to increase rural career choice.

Community engagement: a key to successful rural clinical education.

Evaluation of rural clinical attachments has demonstrated that the rural setting provides a high-quality clinical learning environment that is of potential value to all medical students. Specifically, rural clinical education provides more 'hands on' experience for students in which they are exposed to a wide range of common health problems and develop a high level of clinical competence. Northern Ontario in Canada is a large rural region that has a chronic shortage of healthcare providers. The Northern Ontario School of Medicine (NOSM) was established with a social accountability mandate to contribute to improving the health of the people and communities of Northern Ontario, and is a joint initiative of Laurentian University, Sudbury, and Lakehead University, Thunder Bay, which are over 1000 km apart. The NOSM has developed a distinctive model of medical education known as distributed community engaged learning (DCEL), which weaves together various recent trends in medical education including case-based learning, community-based medical education, electronic distance education and rural-based medical education (including the preceptor model). The NOSM curriculum is grounded in Northern Ontario and relies heavily on electronic communications to support DCEL. In the classroom and in clinical settings, students explore cases from the perspective of doctors in Northern Ontario. In addition, DCEL involves community engagement through which communities actively participate in hosting students and contribute to their learning.This paper explores the conceptual and practical issues of community engagement, with specific focus on successful rural clinical education. Community engagement takes the notion of 'community' in health sciences education beyond being simply community based in that the community actively contributes to hosting the students and enhancing their learning experiences. This is consistent with the focus on social accountability in medical education. Implementing community engagement is quite challenging; however; its potential benefits are substantial and include the improved recruitment and retention of healthcare providers who are responsive to cultural diversity and community needs and are collaborating members of the whole health team.

Canada's new medical school: The Northern Ontario School of Medicine: social accountability through distributed community engaged learning.

Like many rural regions around the world, Northern Ontario has a chronic shortage of doctors. Recognizing that medical graduates who have grown up in a rural area are more likely to practice in the rural setting, the Government of Ontario, Canada, decided in 2001 to establish a new medical school in the region with a social accountability mandate to contribute to improving the health of the people and communities of Northern Ontario. The Northern Ontario School of Medicine (NOSM) is a joint initiative of Laurentian University and Lakehead University, which are located 700 miles apart. This paper outlines the development and implementation of NOSM, Canada's first new medical school in more than 30 years. NOSM is a rural distributed community-based medical school which actively seeks to recruit students into its MD program who come from Northern Ontario or from similar northern, rural, remote, Aboriginal, Francophone backgrounds. The holistic, cohesive curriculum for the MD program relies heavily on electronic communications to support distributed community engaged learning. In the classroom and in clinical settings, students explore cases from the perspective of physicians in Northern Ontario. Clinical education takes place in a wide range of community and health service settings, so that the students experience the diversity of communities and cultures in Northern Ontario. NOSM graduates will be skilled physicians ready and able to undertake postgraduate training anywhere, but with a special affinity for and comfort with pursuing postgraduate training and clinical practice in Northern Ontario.

The Northern Ontario School of Medicine: a long-term strategy to enhance the rural medical workforce.

Like many rural and remote regions around the world, Canada's Northern Ontario has a chronic shortage of doctors and other health care providers. Recognizing that doctors who have grown up in a rural area are more likely to practise in the rural setting, the Government of Ontario decided to establish a new medical school with a social accountability mandate to contribute to improving the health of the people and communities of Northern Ontario. The Northern Ontario School of Medicine (NOSM), a joint initiative of Laurentian University in Sudbury and Lakehead University in Thunder Bay, was established as a rural, community-based medical school. NOSM is a long-term sustainable 'strategy that is expected to lead not only to more skilled doctors and enhanced health care with improved health outcomes, but also to broader academic developments for the universities and substantial economic developments for Northern Ontario communities.

A survey of rural medical education strategies throughout the medical education continuum in Canada.

In many countries the sustainability of rural health care systems is being challenged by a shortage of rural physicians and difficulties in recruiting and retaining physicians in rural practice. Research does suggest that specific medical education strategies can be introduced to enhance rural physician recruitment and retention initiatives. The purpose of this paper is to summarize the current strategies of Canadian rural medical education programs. A survey of all Canadian medical schools was undertaken to profile specific programs and activities at the undergraduate, postgraduate, and continuing medical education/continuing professional development (CME/CPD) levels. The majority of medical schools reported either mandatory or elective rural medicine placement/learning experiences during undergraduate medical education, as well as Rural Family Medicine streams or programs as components of postgraduate medical education. The majority of medical schools reported that they provide clinical traineeships to enhance clinical competencies in rural medicine as well as CME outreach programming, including the use of telehealth or distance learning technologies. Canadian medical schools all have substantial programs covering the full range of approaches found in the literature to help recruit and retain rural physicians. Not surprisingly, the most extensive programs are found in medical schools that have a specific rural mandate.